Allisonsmasters

Women were an under-represented group in psychology in the early 20^th century.

First some context, the world was experiencing rapid advancement. The light bulb, the telephone and who could forget, the iconic blue jeans had all been invented in the previous 30 years.  There were improvements in education, working conditions and more affordable travel. 

Life was changing for women. Between 1880 and 1910, the number of women employed in the United States increased from 2.6m to 7.8m (although 60 percent of all working women were employed as domestic servants). The number of women enrolled in women’s colleges grew from 34,100 in 1910 to 82,100 in 1930 (Library of Congress 2025).

Despite these advancements, women were still very much seen as the homemaker and often under-represented in scientific fields. However, evidence shows that psychology was amongst the most welcoming in admitting women to its ranks (Rossiter, 1982). Furumoto and Scarborough (1986) identified 25 women who had entered the field by 1906 in the USA.  This is significant as there were only 198 members of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1904. This openness to women was replicated in the UK where by 1918, 16% of the members of the British Psychological Society (BPA) were women (Valentine 2017).  This was in stark contrast to other areas such as law and medicine where it would be many years before women were admitted to their ranks.

So, were they under-represented? Yes, but I’d suggest it was as much under-represented in opportunities as numbers. These pioneering women faced barriers.

a. Limited opportunities

In the USA, psychology roles available to women were predominately at women only colleges. Often teaching roles rather than research roles. If a woman got married, she was expected to give up her career. 

     b.   Social and cultural

As Valentine (2017) pointed out, women faced the challenge that they were expected to be the homemaker. If they didn’t marry, families would expect them to take responsibility for looking after elderly parents. As coined by Rossiter (1982), they faced either hierarchical (occupy less prestigious or senior positions) or territorial (focus on caring roles) segregation. Of the 16 women members of the BPA in this period, 11 never married. Why? In this period, you couldn’t have both.

It’s inspirational to review examples of their achievements despite the challenges. They held multiple qualifications and roles in education over their careers including 2 APA presidents. Valentine (2017) noted that 60% of the British women academics were widely published and their research was not confined to caring topics. 

Whilst there were a reasonable number of women psychologists, evidence suggests the opportunity for them to reach their full potential were more limited than men.

One final thought, would these pioneers be happy with what has been achieved in 100 years?

Today women account for approximately 75% of registered practitioner psychologists and over 80% of clinical psychologists today. Men are less likely than women to pursue a career in psychology, but those who do, tend to get paid more than their female counterparts and hold more senior roles. (Nuffield Trust 2021).

The answer is most likely “maybe but still more work to do”.

References

Benjamin, L.T. Jr. (2024). A Brief History of Modern Psychology (4^th ed.). John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Greenwood, J.D. (2015). A Conceptual History of Psychology, Exploring the Tangled Web. pp289 – 343. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107414914.010

Library of Congress, 2025 (n.d.) https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/progressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929/womens-suffrage-in-progressive era

Milar, K.S. (2000). The First Generation of Woman Psychologists and the Psychology of Women. AmericanPsychologist, 55(6), 616-619. https://doi.org/10.10371/0003-066X.55.6.616

Palmer, W., Schlepper, L., Hemmings, N. & Crellin, N. (2021) The Right Track, Participation and Progression in Psychology Career Paths. Nuffield Trust. https://www.nuffieldtrust.org.uk/sites/default/files/2021-07/1625671007_nuffield-trust-the-right-track-pipeline-of-psychologists-web2.pdf

Rossiter, M. (1982). Women Scientists in America: Struggles and strategies to 1940. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Scarborough, E & Furumoto, L. (1987). Untold Lives: The First Generation of American Women Psychologists.Columbia University Press.

Valentine, E. L. (2017). Early Women Members of the British Psychological Society. Stories of Psychology. British Psychological Society. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MpSVtO_513s&list=PLCkLQOAPOtT0RG9391eKQFvEDrG3hJzYb&index=1

Author: Allison Beattie , MSc Applied Psychology Student, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen.